The scientific literature can be viewed as an "information commons:" an intangible resource that "no one owns and is shared by everyone." There are well-established economic and political frameworks for understanding such commons, emerging from the history of agricultural common lands found in places like preindustrial England. This article provides a primer on the history and these frameworks, and considers a key difference between the information commons and the fields of yore: while information commons are robust and immensely valuable

some can be said to rank among humanity's greatest achievements

the English agricultural commons no longer meaningfully exist. The latter are gone not because of the well-known "tragedy of the commons," but rather a phenomenon known as the enclosure movement (~1600--1800) that transformed the common lands into private property. Many observers, then and now, judge enclosure to have been theft at a societal scale. This article argues that artificial intelligence (AI) provides precisely the tools needed to enable a previously-infeasible enclosure of the information commons. Although AI-enabled enclosure does not operate identically to physical enclosure, it shares the key features of turning the commons into private wealth and undermining the social systems that support them (via "slop spam"). The concepts presented in this article can provide a scholarly basis for interrogating the foreboding feeling that AI may represent not just a smash-and-grab, but an attack upon a whole way of life.

https://archive.ph/yeRkG

https://archive.ph/0Bbuw

https://archive.ph/9DskM

cross-posted from: https://hexbear.net/post/9822526

Endangered Lantau toads show genetic and call differences that could signal an emerging species

The short-legged horned toad, an endangered species in Hong Kong, is a small frog measuring around 40 mm in length. It is characterised by short hind limbs, small horn-like projections above the eyes, and skin coloration and patterns that closely resemble dead leaves. (The photo shows the Short-legged Horned Toad population on Lantau Island.) Credit: Lingnan University

The short-legged horned toad (Boulenophrys brachykolos), listed as endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, is the only known small frog species in Hong Kong belonging to the genus Boulenophrys of the family Megophryidae.

A study led by the Division of Science at Lingnan University has found that the Lantau Island population of the short-legged horned toad shows clear genetic divergence from other local populations, along with several notable differences in the mating calls of males.

The research team suggests that the Lantau population represents an early stage of speciation. Geographic isolation of Lantau Island from other landmasses likely contributed to these unique evolutionary traits. The team recommends treating the Lantau population as a separate conservation unit in the future.

These findings have been published in the journal Current Herpetology.

Distinct genes and faster mating calls

The short-legged horned toad is found in mountain streams on Lantau Island, Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, the New Territories and adjacent Shenzhen. The research team, led by Lingnan University, collected 19 samples of the short-legged horned toad (nine from Lantau Island, six from Hong Kong Island and four from Kowloon) to examine their genetic and morphological characteristics.

The study shows that Short-legged Horned Toads are visually almost identical, making evolutionary differences difficult to detect through traditional field surveys alone. (The photo shows the Short-legged Horned Toad population on Hong Kong Island.). Credit: Lingnan University

The results show that the short-legged horned toads on Lantau form a distinct genetic group separate from those on Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and Shenzhen. This suggests that the Lantau population has been separated from other populations for a considerable period.

In addition, the team recorded and analyzed the mating calls of male short-legged horned toads from Lantau Island, Hong Kong Island and Kowloon. They found significant differences between the calls of the Lantau Island population and those of other local populations. The Lantau population produces calls with a faster rhythm and shorter individual notes.

Similar appearance masks evolutionary differences

In terms of physical appearance, the team found no marked differences between frogs from Lantau Island and other regions, indicating that physical characteristics alone may be insufficient to distinguish the Lantau population from other populations.

Jonathan Fong, the corresponding author of the study, associate dean (administration and education) of the Wu Jieh Yee School of Interdisciplinary Studies and associate professor of the Division of Science at Lingnan University, said the study provides a more comprehensive approach to evaluating evolutionary divergence among populations of the same species.

He said, "Many amphibians look very similar, making evolutionary differences difficult to detect through traditional methods that examine morphology alone. By integrating genetic and acoustic data, we found that frogs on Lantau Island have a distinct genetic makeup and male toads have different mating calls. This suggests that the Lantau population is following a distinct evolutionary trajectory."

Isolation strengthens the case for separate conservation

Sung Yik-hei, the first author of the study and adjunct assistant professor of the Division of Science at Lingnan University, explained that Lantau Island became geographically isolated from the mainland approximately 10,000 years ago. The geographic isolation likely reduced gene flow between populations, allowing the Lantau short-legged horned toad population to develop unique genetic traits over time. The study also highlights that Hong Kong may harbor undiscovered biodiversity.

Sung said, "The results suggest that the short-legged horned toad population on Lantau Island may represent an early stage of speciation, although current evidence is insufficient to determine whether the Lantau population constitutes a distinct species. The short-legged horned toad is an endangered species, and if the Lantau population declines or becomes extinct, its unique genetic traits could be lost and could not be replaced by populations from other areas.

"We therefore propose that conservation management recognize the Lantau population as an independent conservation unit, giving due consideration to its specific conservation needs to ensure the survival of this unique native population."

Call for input: Inform the next cycle of the ISC-UNDP Human Development Reports | deadline: 20 November 2026

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ISC welcomes new cohort of outstanding scientists to its Fellowship

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The dinosaur, described in a new paper in the journal Royal Society Open Science, belongs to a group of agile, two-legged carnivores called megaraptorans and is the first of this group to be found in Europe.

Megaraptorans were closely related to tyrannosaurs including Tyrannosaurus rex but had slender heads, attacking prey with their large arms and giant curved claws instead of their jaws.

While some species grew to gigantic sizes, just as tyrannosaurs did, this new species is one of the smallest and earliest of the group to be found, living in the UK in the Early Cretaceous period about 120 million years ago.

It has been named Invictibellatrix amberina. Invictibellatrix means “unconquered female warrior” – honouring megaraptorans’ future role as massive apex predators.